Location

Climatic Characteristics

- Within the tropics (between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn)

- At Amazon Basin

- At Congo Basin

- At SEA

- High annual mean temperature

- High annual rainfall

- No distinct dry season

- Small annual range of temperature

- Hot and wet climate

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

- Luxuriant and dense vegetation

- Evergreen

- High density of plants

- With broad crown

- Tall trees

- Layered structure

- Hot and wet all year round → long growing season

- Abundant sunlight

- Favorable for plant growth

- Compete for sunlight

Broad leaf

Absorb maximum amount of sunlight

- Waxy leaf

- Drip-tips

- Shed excess rainwater

- Prevent leaves from being rotten

- Thick tree trunks

- Buttress roots

Support the weight of tall trees

High species diversity

- Presence of epiphytes / stranglers / climbers / parasites

- Presence of five layers

Layer

Environmental Condition

Emergent

Abundant sunlight

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

- Tall trees

- Straight tree trunks

- High branching

- Broad tree crowns

- Compete for sunlight

- Maximize photosynthesis

Buttress roots

Support weight of tall trees

Layer

Environmental Condition

Canopy

Most of sunlight blocked → little sunlight can penetrate to the lower layers

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

- Tall trees

- Straight tree trunks

- High branching

- Oval-shaped and dense crowns

- Compete for sunlight

- Maximize photosynthesis

Buttress roots

Support weight of tall trees

Climbers

- Abundant trees for physical support

- Climb high → compete for sunlight

Layer

Environmental Condition

Young tree

Grow in shade of canopy layer

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

- Short trees

- Sparse trees

- Conical crowns

- Slender trunks

- Saplings of emergent and canopy trees

- Replace old trees

Layer

Environmental Condition

Shrub

Fairly dark layer

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

- Short shrubs and ferns

- Sparse plants

Do not need much sunlight

Layer

Environmental Condition

Undergrowth and ground

- Humid

- Little amount of sunlight reaching the rainforest floor → dark environment

Vegetation Characteristics

Explanation

Decomposers

- Dark and damp forest floor

- Favorable for shade-loving species

- Abundant litter for decomposition

Compartment

Characteristic

Explanation

Biomass

Huge nutrient store

High temperature / heavy rainfall / long growing season → rapid and dense vegetation growth

Active littering

Rapid and dense vegetation growth

Flow Amount and

Storage

Explanation

Largest

- Plants use solar energy and nutrients from the soil to produce their own tissues through photosynthesis

- Animals take up nutrients and convert the plant tissues into their own tissues → transfer up the food web

Compartment

Characteristic

Explanation

Soil

Active weathering

Weathering of rocks release nutrients by hot and wet climate

Small nutrient store

- Intense leaching

- Rapid plant absorption

- Shallow root system absorb soil nutrients → infertile rainforest soil

Flow Amount and

Storage

Explanation

Smaller than biomass

- Nutrients are broken down into inorganic matter and are stored in the soil

- Nutrients are lost through leaching

Compartment

Characteristic

Explanation

Litter

Large input of dissolved nutrients from rain

Heavy rain dissolves nutrients in air

Small nutrient store

- Rapid decomposition favored by hot and wet climate

- Heavy loss in surface runoff

Flow Amount and

Storage

Explanation

Smallest

Active surface runoff by heavy rainfall

Aspect

Impact

Explanation

Biosphere

- Decrease in biomass

- Destruction of habitat

- Lower biodiversity

- Simplifies food web

- Disrupt food chain

- Disrupt nutrient cycle

Atmosphere

- Change in micro-climate

- Diurnal range of temperature increases

- Relative humidity decreases

- Wind speed increases

Hydrosphere

- Change in water cycle

- Less interception

- Less infiltration

- More surface runoff

- Higher risk of flooding

Lithosphere

- Soil erosion / topsoil is removed

- Soil becomes more infertile / rapid depletion in soil fertility

- Leaching is intensified

- Soil compaction

Ecological characteristics

- Shorter height of vegetation

- Lower density of tree cover

- Less vegetation species

- Simpler structure (less layers of vegetation)

- Smaller biomass

Nutrient cycling

Nutrient storage in biomass decreases

Deforestation led to reduction in vegetation cover

Nutrient storage in litter decreases

Less nutrients transfer from fallen leaves to litter

Nutrient storage in soil decreases

- Soil fertility decreases

- Lower decomposition rate

- More loss of nutrients by surface runoff // from soil through leaching

- Less vegetation took nutrients from soil

Energy flow

Shorter energy flow

- Trophic levels reduced

- Shorter food chain

Smaller amount of energy transferred

- Reducing number of producers

- Less dense vegetation

- Smaller amount of energy absorbed by producers

- Less energy transferred to consumers / decomposers

Simplified energy flow

Simplified food web

Artificial energy added

Use of chemical fertilizers / machines

Drainage system

Shortened time lag + rising limb of hydrograph increases rapidly + baseflow decreases in the long run → higher risks of flooding

- Less interception

- Less infiltration

- More surface runoff

Micro-climate

Higher air temperature

- Land surface exposed to sunlight

- Higher light intensity

- Intense heating of land surface during daytime

Higher wind speed

Air flow no longer blocked by dense trees and plants

Lower relative humidity

Lower transpiration

Native people

- Inaccessible forests opened up

- Heavy machines create noise pollution

A closed system of TRF changed to an open system

- Food chain broken

- Relationships of biotic and abiotic components altered

Natural resources for the living of indigenous people decrease rapidly

Factor

Impact

Explanation

Cattle ranching

Reducing amount of nutrients stored in biomass

- Rainforests cleared / burnt

- Output of nutrients from biomass to soil as ash

- From biomass to atmosphere as smoke

- Grassland with smaller biomass

Output of nutrients from cattle ranching

Cattle sent to market

Extensive farming / low inputs of artificial fertilizers

Nutrient storage of soil diminishes

- Reduction of plant cover

- Reduction of litter

- Reduction of humus

- Less nutrients released from litter to soil

- More soil erosion by surface runoff

- More soil compaction by animal trampling

- Reducing infiltration of water

Plantation

Reducing amount of nutrients stored in biomass

- Rainforests cleared / burnt

- Output of nutrients from biomass to soil as ash

- From biomass to atmosphere as smoke

- Monoculture crops

Output of nutrients from plantation field

Crops sent to market

Higher inputs of artificial fertilizers

Increasing efficiency and productivity

Nutrient storage of soil diminishes

- Reduction of plant cover

- Reduction of litter

- Reduction of humus

- Depletion of certain soil nutrients

- Additional soil nutrients by artificial fertilizers for a short run

- Reducing infiltration of water

Timber logging

Reducing amount of nutrients stored in biomass

- Total loss of biomass for clear-cutting

- Partial loss for selective logging

Output of nutrients from area of logging

Hardwood sent to market

Nutrient storage of soil diminishes

- Reduction of plant cover

- Reduction of litter

- Reduction of humus

- Higher wind speed

- More wind erosion

- More soil erosion

- Reducing infiltration of water

- Drier soil

Shifting cultivation

Reducing amount of nutrients stored in biomass

- Rainforests are cleared through "slash and burn"

- Output of nutrients from biomass to soil as ash

- From biomass to atmosphere as smoke

Output of nutrients from area of farming

Farm produce sent to tribes

Nutrient storage of soil diminishes

- Reduction of plant cover

- Reduction of litter

- Reduction of humus

- More soil erosion

- More silting of rivers and flooding

- Reducing infiltration of water

Mining

Reducing amount of nutrients stored in biomass

- Rainforests cleared / burnt

- Output of nutrients from biomass to soil as ash

- From biomass to atmosphere as smoke

Output of nutrients from mining field

Mineral reserves sent to market

Nutrient storage of soil diminishes

- Reduction of plant cover

- Reduction of litter

- Reduction of humus

- Soil erosion by surface runoff

- Reducing infiltration of water

Measures

Advantages

Limitations

National park

/

Eco-tourism

/

Rainforest adoption

Preserves the rainforest

Much lower economic returns

Promotes economic development in a non-destructive way

LDC heavily in debt / poor → rather encouraging economic development and exploitation of rainforest resources

Creates jobs and brings higher and more stable income

Difficult law enforcement

Brings revenues to government by charging entrance fees

High management and monitoring costs

Raises income for conservation projects

LDC lack capital and managerial talents

Preserves the culture / ways of life / living space of native people

Tourists and building of infrastructure and facilities pollute / damage the environment

Serves as an educational tools

Tourists may disturb peaceful life of native people

Rainforest adoption

Provides financial resources to manage the rainforest

Size of rainforest adopted is too small

Expansion of protected areas

Participation of corporations is affected by economic environment

Controls the scale of commercial activities (mining / commercial logging)

Difficult to monitor illegal logging

Attracts involvement of corporations and general public in rainforest conservation

Other measures should also be implemented to conserve the rainforest

Eco-product certification system

Meets the market demand for green consumption

Higher prices of products → high monitoring and production costs to produce sustainable products

Encourages logging companies and plantation owners to produce products in a sustainable way

- Effectiveness depends on consumers' awareness of rainforest conservation

- Corrupt officials may allow companies to obtain certification for their products illegally

Reforestation

- Slows down deforestation

- Maintains wildlife habitats and living space for native / local communities

- Reduces CO2 in air → eases global warming

- Reforested area is much smaller than loss of rainforest area

- Huge cost of conservation + little revenue generated → LDC governments are mostly poor and heavily in debt → rather encouraging economic development

- Low educational level in LDC

- Poor monitoring of projects and policies in LDC

- Limited species for planting / exotic species introduced may disrupt ecosystem

Selective logging

- Lower rate and smaller extent of logging activities

- Preserves the existing canopy

- Protects young trees and non-economic species

- Protects soil and prevents soil erosion

- Allows nutrient cycling to continue

- Requires shorter time for forest regeneration

- Meets global demand for timber while reducing the negative environmental impacts

- Not as efficient or economical as conventional logging methods

- Higher production costs induced by planning and searching for the desired species

- Neighbouring trees are being pulled down due to climbers and lianas

- Higher price of timber

- Reduced income for local loggers

- High monitoring costs → difficult to control illegal logging

- Most LDC lack capital / technology / skilled labor to carry out measures effectively